The Mediterranean region exhibits a remarkable variety of physical, morphological and environmental characteristics, both on land and at sea. Population patterns are diverse, with varying levels of urbanisation, rural areas, the impacts of climate change and water resource management.
Terrestrial protected areas (% of total land area)
Rural population (% of total population)
Urban population (% of total population)
Mean annual air temperature at 2 m above the surface of land
Total precipitation
Total Evaporation
Annual freshwater withdrawals, total (billion cubic meters)
Level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater resources
area_code
ordgeo
Countries
2024
2024
2024
2024
2024
2024
2024
2022
2022
Portugal
16.8
22.8
31.6
68.4
16.0
665.8
-606.4
6.1
12.3
A
1
Spain
12.8
28.1
18.2
81.8
14.6
659.8
-557.2
29.0
43.2
A
2
France
49.8
28.6
18.0
82.0
12.1
1,069.3
-690.2
24.4
21.4
A
3
Italy
10.7
21.6
27.7
72.3
13.8
1,089.1
-649.5
33.8
29.8
A
4
Slovenia
2.9
40.5
43.6
56.4
11.2
1,327.2
-714.4
0.8
5.6
A
5
Croatia
9.3
38.4
41.1
58.9
13.6
996.9
-734.8
0.7
1.5
A
6
Greece
4.7
35.0
19.0
81.0
15.9
647.8
-631.1
10.1
20.3
A
7
Malta
7.8
28.9
5.0
95.0
20.3
306.4
-599.8
0.0
72.6
A
8
Cyprus
8.6
38.6
32.9
67.1
20.4
326.1
-406.0
0.2
30.5
A
9
Serbia
..
13.4
42.6
57.4
13.1
640.0
-646.0
5.1
5.7
B
10
Kosovo
..
..
..
..
11.6
765.5
-647.3
..
..
B
11
Bosnia and Herzegovina
0.0
9.5
49.3
50.7
11.7
1,050.7
-699.3
0.3
2.1
B
12
Montenegro
5.6
21.7
31.2
68.8
10.5
1,341.2
-684.1
2.2
..
B
13
North Macedonia
..
28.2
40.1
59.9
12.4
677.5
-607.8
2.2
52.5
B
14
Albania
3.4
23.6
34.6
65.4
13.6
1,128.5
-716.4
0.8
4.8
B
15
Turkiye
1.7
7.0
22.1
77.9
12.5
617.0
-554.3
64.5
44.1
C
16
Syrian Arab Republic
0.2
0.7
42.0
58.0
20.0
162.9
-196.5
14.0
124.4
C
17
Lebanon
0.2
7.9
10.4
89.6
16.1
404.8
-485.0
1.8
58.8
C
18
Jordan
2.8
5.4
7.8
92.2
20.1
41.7
-60.5
0.9
105.2
C
19
Israel
0.6
27.6
7.0
93.0
21.0
125.9
-180.9
1.5
129.7
C
20
West Bank and Gaza
0.0
10.0
22.1
77.9
20.6
200.6
-306.3
0.3
48.1
C
21
Egypt, Arab Rep.
4.6
13.2
56.7
43.3
23.5
8.3
-42.9
77.5
141.2
D
22
Libya
0.6
0.1
18.1
81.9
23.2
17.1
-27.9
5.7
817.1
D
23
Tunisia
1.1
7.9
29.1
70.9
21.1
141.1
-164.2
3.9
98.1
D
24
Algeria
0.1
4.7
24.2
75.8
24.6
48.7
-61.8
10.3
144.8
D
25
Morocco
0.3
2.1
34.4
65.6
19.3
211.5
-211.2
10.6
50.8
D
26
Marine protected areas (% of territorial waters)
SerbiaNo data available
KosovoNo data available
North MacedoniaNo data available
Terrestrial protected areas (% of total land area)
KosovoNo data available
Rural population (% of total population)
KosovoNo data available
Urban population (% of total population)
KosovoNo data available
Annual freshwater withdrawals, total (billion cubic meters)
KosovoNo data available
Level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal as a proportion of available freshwater resources
KosovoNo data available
MontenegroNo data available
Some highlighted topics
Forested and protected areas
The recent global focus on biodiversity is a clear sign of political and environmental concern on this issue, leading to the setting of ambitious global goals and quantitative targets. The United Nations, through Target 3 of the Global Biodiversity Framework, and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 14 and 15 of the (2030 Agenda), has set the course by encouraging the protection of large swathes of land and water. In this scenario, the Mediterranean area—a biodiversity hotspot—appear simultaneously one of the most vulnerable areas, exposed to climate change and land consumption due to a poorly regulated urban and tourist expansion.
The data, however, show a variegated picture with significant differences across regions in the progress made. Between 2013 and 2024, European Union countries have increased their marine protected areas by an average above 9%; some countries, such as France, even doubled their coverage from 20.4% to 49.8% of their territorial waters. Despite this positive European momentum, the SDG-related "30 by 30" target (protecting 30% of marine waters by 2030) is for many countries far from being reached. Countries such as Slovenia, Croatia, Malta, and Cyprus, as well as Montenegro and Albania, despite showing some progress, still have less than 10% of their territorial waters as protected areas. Progress is even slower in other parts of the Mediterranean basin. In both the Middle East and North Africa countries, marine protection efforts are modest, with protected areas often falling below 1% of all territorial waters. The ongoing policies aiming at terrestrial protection also face challenges in meeting the 30% 2030 target; only a few countries— namely Greece, Croatia, and Cyprus— seem to be able to achieve this goal or to get close to it. Conversely, Italy is unlikely to reach the fixed target, with just 21.6% of its land area currently under protection. In the Balkans, although all countries are currently below the threshold, there has been an encouraging positive trend over the 2013–2024 period, with notable progress made in particular by North Macedonia and Albania. Looking at the rest of the Mediterranean, Israel stands out in the Middle East with a significant share of protected land, reaching 27.6% in 2024. In North Africa, while Egypt (13.2%) and Tunisia (7.9%) have established protected areas, most of the other countries in the region show a very reduced share of protected lands.
Figure 1 - Marine and terrestrial protected areas. 2024 (%)
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Urban and rural population
A joint analysis of urban and rural population indicators confirms that almost all Mediterranean countries are experiencing a steady decline in their rural populations in favour of urban areas. The data show that over the period 2001–2024 urban population growth has significantly increased - albeit at different rates depending on each nation's stage of urban development. Countries with mature urbanization, such as those in the European Union (e.g., France, Spain, and Malta) as well as Israel, are characterized by very high rates of urbanization (above 80%) but by a slow growth of this index, with an average annual evolution rate of urbanization of around 0.2% over the 2001–2024 period. The only exception in the European region is Portugal, showing an average annual growth of 0.6%, this in turn reflecting an ongoing process of transition toward a predominantly urban structure. In the case of Western Balkan area and North Africa, countries such as Albania, Morocco, Turkey, and Algeria are going through a rapid transition. While these countries generally have lower levels of urban population than European nations, they have experienced between 2001 and 2024 a strong demographic growth, with average annual evolution rates of the population above 0.5%—reaching 1% in the case of Albania. The only country showing a negative trend in urban growth is Cyprus, with a -1.7% contraction between 2001 and 2024. In this global trend, Egypt is an outlier, showing low levels of urban population (43.3% in 2024) and a very limited average growth over the 2021-24 period.
However, the population moving from rural areas to cities is not distributed evenly. In countries such as North Macedonia, Israel, Lebanon, and Egypt, population flows are directed mainly toward large cities (those with more than 300,000 inhabitants), which are generally located on the coasts; in these cases, the urban population residing in such agglomerations exceeds 45% of the total. In other countries, partly due to the presence of homogeneous infrastructure and service networks, the population is redistributed across smaller towns and peri-urban areas.
Ultimately, the analysis shows that urban population growth, particularly in large metropolitan areas, is a non-reversible trend. This transition would require appropriate policies and tools to mitigate the problems associated with this phenomenon and the parallel depopulation of rural areas, which has inevitable negative impacts on the environment, pollution, landscape, access to essential services, and social inequality.
Figure 2 - Urban population. 2001 and 2024 (% of total population)
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Climate
The Mediterranean basin, which has always been a crossroads of civilisations and cultures, is now one of the areas most exposed to the impacts of climate change. The analysis is based on data from the Copernicus Climate Data Store (ERA5-Land), a climate reanalysis tool that provides a consistent and detailed reconstruction of terrestrial variables on a decadal scale. With a spatial resolution of approximately 9 km (0.1° x 0.1°), it has been possible to observe the climate evolution of individual countries since 1991.
Specifically, in order to assess current trends, the analysis compares the variability of the last four years (2021-2024) with the 30-year climatological reference average (1991-2020).
The results outline an ongoing climate emergency: an inexorable rise in temperatures and a growing water deficit.
The analysis examines the trend in average annual air temperatures, measured at 2 metres above ground level, in countries bordering the Mediterranean basin. From a geographical point of view, the average values naturally reflect the characteristics of the different climatic areas: North Africa remains the structurally warmest area, while the Western Balkans have the lowest average temperatures. However, beyond local differences, the cross-cutting data common to all countries is an unequivocal increase in average temperatures, a direct consequence of global climate change (Figure 3).
Analysing anomalies compared to the thirty-year reference period, the most marked warming peaks are observed in various areas of the basin. Algeria reaches the maximum value with an increase of 1.3°C. The European continent also shows clear signs: Spain records the largest increase (+1.2°C), a value similar to that found in Serbia, for the Western Balkans area, and in Turkey for the Middle East.
It should be noted that the use of the annual average value, although essential for identifying underlying trends, does not allow seasonal variability to be fully captured. The latter, in fact, can manifest themselves with very different intensities and dynamics between countries, masking any extreme events that the annual average alone tends to level out.
In parallel with the rise in temperatures, analysis of cumulative annual precipitation paints a clear picture of declining water availability across the Mediterranean basin. A comparison between the climatological average for the thirty-year period 1991-2020 and that of the last four years (2021-2024) shows that every single country in the area is facing a reduction in rainfall, albeit with varying intensity depending on latitude (Figure 3).
The most critical issues are concentrated in North Africa, where the decline in rainfall is reaching dramatic proportions. Countries such as Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria have seen their natural water supplies almost halved, with percentage reductions ranging from 44% to 46%. A similar situation, with slightly lower values, can be found in the Middle East, where Lebanon and Israel have recorded declines of around 40%.
Turning our attention to Europe, the negative trend is confirmed everywhere. Italy, in particular, has suffered a 20.1% reduction, falling from a historical average of over 1,000 mm per year to just under 900 mm in recent times. The Iberian Peninsula is also showing signs of severe suffering, with Portugal losing over a quarter of its historical rainfall (-26.7%). Not even the Balkan area, historically the rainiest in the region, is immune to this trend: Montenegro and Croatia, for example, have recorded declines of more than 20%.
In conclusion, the data outline a clear trend towards structural “meteo-climatic drought” in the Mediterranean area. However, these average values must be interpreted with caution: the reduction in annual rainfall is often accompanied by greater irregularity in weather patterns, with long dry periods interrupted by extreme rainfall events which, while not compensating for the annual water deficit, increase the risk of hydrogeological hazards (floods and landslides).
Figure 3 - Mean temperature, total precipitation and total evaporation – Period 2021-2024 vs 1991-2020 (%)
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...
...
Analysis of total cumulative annual evaporation in the Mediterranean area, comparing the period 2021–2024 with the thirty-year period 1991–2020, confirms a significant aggravating factor for the regional water crisis: there is a widespread increase in surface evaporation (including vegetation transpiration) in almost all the countries analysed. This increase is directly attributable to higher temperatures and indicates that the atmosphere is intensifying the removal of moisture from the soil and vegetation (Figure 3).
The largest increases are evident in North Africa, followed by the Middle East. Algeria, with an increase of 39.8%, leads the ranking of percentage increases, followed by Morocco and Tunisia, with increases of more than 30%. In the Middle East, Lebanon and Israel recorded exceptionally high increases, exceeding 29%, suggesting an intense response of local evaporation processes to warming.
Although to a lesser extent, continental Mediterranean Europe shows a trend consistent with other countries in the Mediterranean basin: Malta and Portugal in particular recorded increases of 20.8% and 18.6% respectively. A similar trend can be observed in the Western Balkans, with Serbia achieving a total evaporation increase of 13.3%.
In summary, the increase in total evaporation combined with the precipitation deficit exacerbates water stress conditions, reducing the amount of available water resources.
Water resources
Water resource data are analysed using two main indicators: annual freshwater withdrawal (calculated excluding losses due to evaporation from storage basins) and water stress level, which measures the ratio between freshwater withdrawals and total available water resources. The smaller the margin between water supply and demand, the greater the vulnerability of a territory to water scarcity.
According to the reference literature, a country is classified as experiencing “extreme water stress” when it uses at least 80% of its available water resources, while “high water stress” occurs when withdrawals reach 40% of reserves. Increased hydrological variability and climate change have a significant impact on the water sector, affecting the hydrological cycle, availability, demand and allocation of water on a global, basin and local scale. In this context, efficient water resource management is a key factor for economic growth, poverty reduction and improved equity, particularly in developing countries.
Total annual freshwater withdrawals are strongly correlated with the size of countries and the specific characteristics of their water resources. In light of this, the highest values for the annual withdrawal indicator are recorded in Egypt (77.5 billion m³) and Turkey (64.5 billion m³), followed by Italy, Spain and France, with withdrawals of 33.8, 29.0 and 24.4 billion m³ respectively.
From the point of view of water stress, the most critical situations are found in North African and Middle Eastern countries, characterised by indicator values exceeding 100% of available resources. This includes Libya, Egypt, Algeria, Syria, Israel and Jordan (Figure 4). Tunisia also falls into the category of extreme water stress, with values above the 80% threshold. A further group of countries, spread across the entire Mediterranean area, has high levels of water stress, with values between 40% and 50%: these include Spain, Turkey, North Macedonia, Lebanon, Palestine and Morocco.
Over the last twenty years, water stress levels have worsened overall, particularly in certain countries that were already experiencing critical conditions in 2002, such as Libya, Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Tunisia, Malta and Lebanon. Conversely, in other countries, pressure on water resources has eased since the beginning of the century: this is the case in Syria and Morocco, where the situation remains critical, and in Italy and Portugal, where stress levels are more moderate.
Figure 4 - Level of water stress (freshwater withdrawal in proportion to available freshwater resources) in 2022 and difference in percentage points compared to 2002 (a)
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Metadata
Indicators
Definition
Rural population refers to people living in rural areas as defined by national statistical offices. It is calculated as the difference between the total population and the urban population.
Sources
World Bank Development Indicators elaborations on United Nations Population Division (UNPD) data
Methodology
Rural population is calculated as the difference between the total population and the urban population. The rural population is approximated as the non-urban population in the middle of the year. The United Nations Population Division and other agencies provide current population estimates for developing countries that do not have recent census data and pre- and post-census estimates for countries that do have census data.
Notes
The aggregation of urban and rural populations may not correspond to the total population due to the different coverage of countries. There is no consistent, universally accepted standard for distinguishing urban from rural areas, in part because of the wide variety of situations in different countries. Because estimates of cities and metropolitan areas are based on national definitions of what constitutes a city or metropolitan area, comparisons between countries must be made with caution. To estimate urban populations, the UN ratios of urban population to total population were applied to World Bank estimates of total population.
Urban population refers to people living in urban areas as defined by national statistical offices.
Sources
a) United Nations Population Division (UNPD); b) World Bank Development Indicators for Palestine
Methodology
Urban population refers to people living in urban areas as defined by national statistical offices. The indicator is calculated using World Bank population estimates and the United Nations Urbanization Indices (World Urbanization Prospects). The United Nations Population Division and other agencies provide current population estimates for developing countries that do not have recent census data and pre- and post-census estimates for countries that do have census data
Notes
Most countries use an urban classification linked to the size or characteristics of settlements. Some define urban areas based on the presence of certain infrastructures and services. Other countries designate urban areas according to administrative provisions. Due to national differences in the characteristics that distinguish urban from rural areas, the distinction between urban and rural population does not lend itself to a single definition applicable to all countries. Because estimates of cities and metropolitan areas are based on national definitions of what constitutes a city or metropolitan area, comparisons between countries must be made with caution. Population estimates are derived from demographic models and are therefore susceptible to bias and errors due to deficiencies in the model and data. Countries differ in how they classify the population as "urban" or "rural." The cohort-component method, used to estimate and project population, requires data on fertility, mortality and net migration, often collected from sample surveys, which may be small or with limited coverage.
Percentage of the territorial waters of marine protected areas, which are areas of intertidal or subtidal land – together with overlying waters, associated flora and fauna, and historical and cultural features – reserved by law or by other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment.
Sources
wemed elaborations on World Bank Development Indicators and United Nations Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) data
Methodology
This indicator is calculated using all nationally designated protected areas registered in the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) whose location and extent are known. The WDPA database is stored within a geographic information system (GIS) that stores information about protected areas such as name, type and date of designation, documented area, geographic location (point), and/or boundary (polygon). A GIS analysis is used to calculate land and sea protection.
Notes
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines a protected area as "a clearly defined, recognized, dedicated and managed geographical space, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with the associated ecosystem services and cultural values". Designating an area as protected does not mean that protection is in place. In addition, for small countries that only have protected areas of less than 1,000 hectares in size, the size limit in the definition leads to an underestimation of protected areas. Nationally protected areas are defined using the IUCN's six management categories for areas of at least 1,000 hectares: scientific reserves and rigorous nature reserves with limited access to the public; national parks of national or international importance and not materially affected by human activity; natural monuments and natural landscapes with unique aspects; managed nature reserves and wildlife sanctuaries; protected landscapes (which may include cultural landscapes); areas managed primarily for the sustainable use of natural systems to ensure the long-term protection and maintenance of biological diversity.
Percentage of total terrestrial areas of terrestrial protected areas, which are fully or partially protected areas of at least 1,000 hectares, designated by national authorities as scientific reserves with limited public access, national parks, natural monuments, nature reserves or wildlife sanctuaries, protected landscapes and areas managed primarily for sustainable use. Marine areas, unclassified areas, coastal (intertidal) areas and sites protected by local or provincial laws are excluded.
Sources
elaborations of World Bank Development Indicators on data from the United Nations Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC)
Methodology
This indicator is calculated using all nationally designated protected areas registered in the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) whose location and extent are known. The WDPA database is stored within a geographic information system (GIS) that stores information about protected areas such as name, type and date of designation, documented area, geographic location (point), and/or boundary (polygon). A GIS analysis is used to calculate land and sea protection.
Notes
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines a protected area as "a clearly defined, recognized, dedicated and managed geographical space, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with the associated ecosystem services and cultural values". Designating an area as protected does not mean that protection is in place. In addition, for small countries that only have protected areas of less than 1,000 hectares in size, the size limit in the definition leads to an underestimation of protected areas. Nationally protected areas are defined using the IUCN's six management categories for areas of at least 1,000 hectares: scientific reserves and rigorous nature reserves with limited access to the public; national parks of national or international importance and not materially affected by human activity; natural monuments and natural landscapes with unique aspects; managed nature reserves and wildlife sanctuaries; protected landscapes (which may include cultural landscapes); areas managed primarily for the sustainable use of natural systems to ensure the long-term protection and maintenance of biological diversity.
Annual freshwater withdrawals refer to total water withdrawals, not counting evaporative losses from storage basins. The withdrawals also include water from desalination plants in countries where they represent a significant source.
Sources
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
Methodology
The data is based on surveys and estimates provided by governments to the Joint Monitoring Programme of the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). Data on freshwater resources are based on estimates of runoff into rivers and groundwater recharge.
Notes
Withdrawals can exceed 100% of total renewable resources when extraction from non-renewable aquifers or desalination plants is considerable or when there is significant water reuse. Levies for agriculture and industry are the total levies for irrigation and livestock farming and for direct industrial use (including levies for cooling thermal power plants). Domestic withdrawals include drinking water, municipal use or supply, and use for utilities, commercial establishments, and homes. These estimates are based on different sources and refer to different years, so comparisons between countries should be made with caution. Because data is collected intermittently, it can hide significant variations in total renewable water resources from one year to the next. In addition, the data does not distinguish between seasonal and geographical variations in water availability within countries. Data for small countries and those in arid and semi-arid areas are less reliable than those for larger countries and those with more rainfall. Caution should also be exercised when comparing data on annual freshwater withdrawals, which are subject to variations in collection and estimation methods. In addition, inflows and outflows are estimated at different times and at different levels of quality and accuracy, which requires caution in interpreting the data, particularly for water-strapped countries, especially in the Middle East and North Africa.
Ratio of total freshwater withdrawn from all major sectors to total renewable freshwater resources, after taking into account environmental water requirements. The main sectors, defined by ISIC standards, include agriculture, forestry and fisheries, manufacturing, electrical industry and services. This indicator is also known as water withdrawal intensity.
Sources
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
Methodology
Total freshwater withdrawal is the volume of freshwater extracted from the source (rivers, lakes, aquifers) for agriculture, industries, and municipalities. It is estimated at the national level for the following three main sectors: agriculture, municipalities (including domestic water withdrawal) and industries. Freshwater withdrawal includes primary freshwater (not previously withdrawn), secondary freshwater (previously withdrawn and returned to rivers and aquifers, such as wastewater and agricultural drainage water), and fossil groundwater. It does not include unconventional water, i.e. the direct use of treated wastewater, the direct use of agricultural drainage water and desalinated water. Total freshwater withdrawal is generally calculated as the sum of total water withdrawal per sector minus direct wastewater use, direct agricultural drainage water use, and desalinated water use. The actual total renewable water resources of a country or region are defined as the sum of internal renewable water resources and external renewable water resources, also expressed in km3/year. The indicator is calculated by dividing total water withdrawal by total actual renewable water resources minus environmental requirements and is expressed in percentage points. Total renewable water resources are expressed as the sum of internal and external renewable water resources. The terms "water resources" and "water withdrawals" are here understood as freshwater resources and freshwater withdrawals. Inland renewable water resources are defined as the long-term average annual flow of rivers and groundwater recharge for a given country, generated by endogenous rainfall. External renewable water resources refer to the flows of water entering the country, taking into account the amount of flows reserved for upstream and downstream countries through agreements or treaties. Environmental water requirements (Env.) are the amounts of water needed to sustain freshwater and estuarine ecosystems. Water quality and the ecosystem services that derive from it are excluded from this formulation, which is limited to water volumes. This does not mean that quality and support for societies dependent on environmental flows are not important and should not be taken into account. The methods of calculation of the Env. They are highly variable and range from global estimates to comprehensive assessments for waterways. Water volumes can be expressed in the same units of measurement as the total freshwater withdrawal and therefore as percentages of the available water resources.
Notes
Water abstraction as a percentage of water resources is a good indicator of pressure on limited water resources, one of the most important natural resources. However, it only partially addresses issues related to sustainable water management. Additional indicators that capture the multiple dimensions of water management would combine data on water demand management, behavioural changes related to water use, and the availability of adequate infrastructure, and would measure progress in increasing the efficiency and sustainability of water use, particularly in relation to population and economic growth. Furthermore, they recognise the different climatic contexts that influence water use in countries, particularly in agriculture, which is the main user of water. The assessment of sustainability is also linked to the critical thresholds set for this indicator, and there is no universal consensus on such a threshold. Water withdrawal trends show relatively slow patterns of change. Usually, three to five years is the minimum frequency required to detect significant changes, as the indicator is unlikely to show significant variations from one year to the next. Estimating water withdrawal by sector is the main limitation to calculating the indicator. Few countries regularly publish data on water use by sector. Renewable water resources include all surface and groundwater resources that are available on an annual basis, without considering the capacity to collect and use this resource. Exploitable water resources, which refer to the volume of surface or groundwater available with a 90% frequency, are significantly lower than renewable water resources, but there is no universal method for assessing these exploitable water resources. There is no universally agreed method for calculating freshwater inflows originating outside a country's borders. Nor is there a standard method for accounting for return flows, i.e. the portion of water withdrawn from the source that returns to the river system after use. In countries where return flows represent a substantial part of water abstraction, the indicator tends to underestimate available water and therefore overestimate the level of water stress. Other limitations affecting the interpretation of the water stress indicator are: difficulty in obtaining accurate, complete and up-to-date data; potentially wide variation in sub-national data; failure to consider seasonal variations in water resources; failure to consider distribution among water uses; failure to consider water quality and suitability for use. The indicator may exceed 100% when water abstraction includes secondary fresh water (water previously abstracted and returned to the system), non-renewable water (fossil groundwater), when annual groundwater abstraction exceeds annual recharge (over-abstraction), or when water abstraction includes some or all of the water set aside for environmental water requirements. Some of these issues can be resolved by disaggregating the index at the hydrological unit level and distinguishing between different sectors of use. However, given the complexity of water flows, both within and between countries, care must be taken to avoid double counting.
Average annual air temperature at 2 m above the ground surface.
Sources
Wemed elaborations on Copernicus Climate Data Store, ERA5-Land data.
Methodology
ERA5-Land is a climate reanalysis dataset that provides a consistent and detailed view of the evolution of land-related variables (such as soil temperature, soil moisture, precipitation, snow, evaporation, etc.) over several decades. The average annual temperature is calculated by aggregating the monthly average data from a global dataset structured on a regular grid of latitude and longitude. The country-specific data is obtained, in turn, through the spatial aggregation (arithmetic mean) of the grid values included in the respective national territory.
Notes
The spatial resolution of the regular grid is about 9 km (0.1° x 0.1°)
Wemed elaborations on Copernicus Climate Data Store, ERA5-Land data.
Methodology
ERA5-Land is a climate reanalysis dataset that provides a consistent and detailed view of the evolution of land-related variables (such as soil temperature, soil moisture, precipitation, snow, evaporation, etc.) over several decades. Total annual precipitation is calculated by aggregating the monthly cumulative data from a global dataset structured on a regular grid of latitude and longitude. The country-specific data is obtained, in turn, through the spatial aggregation (arithmetic mean) of the grid values included in the respective national territory.
Notes
The spatial resolution of the regular grid is about 9 km (0.1° x 0.1°)
Accumulated amount of water evaporated from the Earth's surface, including a simplified representation of transpiration (from vegetation), into water vapor in the air above.
Sources
Wemed elaborations on Copernicus Climate Data Store, ERA5-Land data.
Methodology
ERA5-Land is a climate reanalysis dataset that provides a consistent and detailed view of the evolution of land-related variables (such as soil temperature, soil moisture, precipitation, snow, evaporation, etc.) over several decades. The total annual evaporation is calculated by aggregating the cumulative monthly data of a global dataset structured on a regular grid of latitude and longitude. The country-specific data is obtained, in turn, through the spatial aggregation (arithmetic mean) of the grid values included in the respective national territory. The convention provides that downward flows are positive. Therefore, negative values indicate evaporation and positive values indicate condensation.
Notes
The spatial resolution of the regular grid is about 9 km (0.1° x 0.1°)
